This document describes the details of the Model
API. It builds on the
material presented in the model and database
query guides, so you’ll probably want to read and
understand those documents before reading this one.
Throughout this reference we’ll use the example blog models presented in the database query guide.
To create a new instance of a model, instantiate it like any other Python class:
The keyword arguments are the names of the fields you’ve defined on your model.
Note that instantiating a model in no way touches your database; for that, you
need to save()
.
Note
You may be tempted to customize the model by overriding the __init__
method. If you do so, however, take care not to change the calling
signature as any change may prevent the model instance from being saved.
Additionally, referring to model fields within __init__
may potentially
result in infinite recursion errors in some circumstances. Rather than
overriding __init__
, try using one of these approaches:
Add a classmethod on the model class:
from django.db import models
class Book(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=100)
@classmethod
def create(cls, title):
book = cls(title=title)
# do something with the book
return book
book = Book.create("Pride and Prejudice")
Add a method on a custom manager (usually preferred):
class BookManager(models.Manager):
def create_book(self, title):
book = self.create(title=title)
# do something with the book
return book
class Book(models.Model):
title = models.CharField(max_length=100)
objects = BookManager()
book = Book.objects.create_book("Pride and Prejudice")
The from_db()
method can be used to customize model instance creation
when loading from the database.
The db
argument contains the database alias for the database the model
is loaded from, field_names
contains the names of all loaded fields, and
values
contains the loaded values for each field in field_names
. The
field_names
are in the same order as the values
. If all of the model’s
fields are present, then values
are guaranteed to be in the order
__init__()
expects them. That is, the instance can be created by
cls(*values)
. If any fields are deferred, they won’t appear in
field_names
. In that case, assign a value of django.db.models.DEFERRED
to each of the missing fields.
In addition to creating the new model, the from_db()
method must set the
adding
and db
flags in the new instance’s _state
attribute.
Below is an example showing how to record the initial values of fields that are loaded from the database:
from django.db.models import DEFERRED
@classmethod
def from_db(cls, db, field_names, values):
# Default implementation of from_db() (subject to change and could
# be replaced with super()).
if len(values) != len(cls._meta.concrete_fields):
values = list(values)
values.reverse()
values = [
values.pop() if f.attname in field_names else DEFERRED
for f in cls._meta.concrete_fields
]
instance = cls(*values)
instance._state.adding = False
instance._state.db = db
# customization to store the original field values on the instance
instance._loaded_values = dict(
zip(field_names, (value for value in values if value is not DEFERRED))
)
return instance
def save(self, **kwargs):
# Check how the current values differ from ._loaded_values. For example,
# prevent changing the creator_id of the model. (This example doesn't
# support cases where 'creator_id' is deferred).
if not self._state.adding and (
self.creator_id != self._loaded_values["creator_id"]
):
raise ValueError("Updating the value of creator isn't allowed")
super().save(**kwargs)
The example above shows a full from_db()
implementation to clarify how that
is done. In this case it would be possible to use a super()
call in the
from_db()
method.
If you delete a field from a model instance, accessing it again reloads the value from the database:
>>> obj = MyModel.objects.first()
>>> del obj.field
>>> obj.field # Loads the field from the database
Asynchronous version: arefresh_from_db()
If you need to reload a model’s values from the database, you can use the
refresh_from_db()
method. When this method is called without arguments the
following is done:
All non-deferred fields of the model are updated to the values currently present in the database.
Any cached relations are cleared from the reloaded instance.
Only fields of the model are reloaded from the database. Other
database-dependent values such as annotations aren’t reloaded. Any
@cached_property
attributes
aren’t cleared either.
The reloading happens from the database the instance was loaded from, or from
the default database if the instance wasn’t loaded from the database. The
using
argument can be used to force the database used for reloading.
It is possible to force the set of fields to be loaded by using the fields
argument.
For example, to test that an update()
call resulted in the expected
update, you could write a test similar to this:
def test_update_result(self):
obj = MyModel.objects.create(val=1)
MyModel.objects.filter(pk=obj.pk).update(val=F("val") + 1)
# At this point obj.val is still 1, but the value in the database
# was updated to 2. The object's updated value needs to be reloaded
# from the database.
obj.refresh_from_db()
self.assertEqual(obj.val, 2)
Note that when deferred fields are accessed, the loading of the deferred field’s value happens through this method. Thus it is possible to customize the way deferred loading happens. The example below shows how one can reload all of the instance’s fields when a deferred field is reloaded:
class ExampleModel(models.Model):
def refresh_from_db(self, using=None, fields=None, **kwargs):
# fields contains the name of the deferred field to be
# loaded.
if fields is not None:
fields = set(fields)
deferred_fields = self.get_deferred_fields()
# If any deferred field is going to be loaded
if fields.intersection(deferred_fields):
# then load all of them
fields = fields.union(deferred_fields)
super().refresh_from_db(using, fields, **kwargs)
The from_queryset
argument allows using a different queryset than the one
created from _base_manager
. It gives you more
control over how the model is reloaded. For example, when your model uses soft
deletion you can make refresh_from_db()
to take this into account:
obj.refresh_from_db(from_queryset=MyModel.active_objects.all())
You can cache related objects that otherwise would be cleared from the reloaded instance:
obj.refresh_from_db(from_queryset=MyModel.objects.select_related("related_field"))
You can lock the row until the end of transaction before reloading a model’s values:
obj.refresh_from_db(from_queryset=MyModel.objects.select_for_update())
The from_queryset
argument was added.
A helper method that returns a set containing the attribute names of all those fields that are currently deferred for this model.
There are four steps involved in validating a model:
Validate the model fields - Model.clean_fields()
Validate the model as a whole - Model.clean()
Validate the field uniqueness - Model.validate_unique()
Validate the constraints - Model.validate_constraints()
All four steps are performed when you call a model’s full_clean()
method.
When you use a ModelForm
, the call to
is_valid()
will perform these validation steps for
all the fields that are included on the form. See the ModelForm
documentation for more information. You should only
need to call a model’s full_clean()
method if you plan to handle
validation errors yourself, or if you have excluded fields from the
ModelForm
that require validation.
This method calls Model.clean_fields()
, Model.clean()
,
Model.validate_unique()
(if validate_unique
is True
), and
Model.validate_constraints()
(if validate_constraints
is True
)
in that order and raises a ValidationError
that
has a message_dict
attribute containing errors from all four stages.
The optional exclude
argument can be used to provide a set
of field
names that can be excluded from validation and cleaning.
ModelForm
uses this argument to exclude fields that
aren’t present on your form from being validated since any errors raised could
not be corrected by the user.
Note that full_clean()
will not be called automatically when you call
your model’s save()
method. You’ll need to call it manually
when you want to run one-step model validation for your own manually created
models. For example:
from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
try:
article.full_clean()
except ValidationError as e:
# Do something based on the errors contained in e.message_dict.
# Display them to a user, or handle them programmatically.
pass
The first step full_clean()
performs is to clean each individual field.
This method will validate all fields on your model. The optional exclude
argument lets you provide a set
of field names to exclude from validation.
It will raise a ValidationError
if any fields
fail validation.
The second step full_clean()
performs is to call Model.clean()
.
This method should be overridden to perform custom validation on your model.
This method should be used to provide custom model validation, and to modify attributes on your model if desired. For instance, you could use it to automatically provide a value for a field, or to do validation that requires access to more than a single field:
import datetime
from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
from django.db import models
from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
class Article(models.Model):
...
def clean(self):
# Don't allow draft entries to have a pub_date.
if self.status == "draft" and self.pub_date is not None:
raise ValidationError(_("Draft entries may not have a publication date."))
# Set the pub_date for published items if it hasn't been set already.
if self.status == "published" and self.pub_date is None:
self.pub_date = datetime.date.today()
Note, however, that like Model.full_clean()
, a model’s clean()
method is not invoked when you call your model’s save()
method.
In the above example, the ValidationError
exception raised by Model.clean()
was instantiated with a string, so it
will be stored in a special error dictionary key,
NON_FIELD_ERRORS
. This key is used for errors
that are tied to the entire model instead of to a specific field:
from django.core.exceptions import NON_FIELD_ERRORS, ValidationError
try:
article.full_clean()
except ValidationError as e:
non_field_errors = e.message_dict[NON_FIELD_ERRORS]
To assign exceptions to a specific field, instantiate the
ValidationError
with a dictionary, where the
keys are the field names. We could update the previous example to assign the
error to the pub_date
field:
class Article(models.Model):
...
def clean(self):
# Don't allow draft entries to have a pub_date.
if self.status == "draft" and self.pub_date is not None:
raise ValidationError(
{"pub_date": _("Draft entries may not have a publication date.")}
)
...
If you detect errors in multiple fields during Model.clean()
, you can also
pass a dictionary mapping field names to errors:
raise ValidationError(
{
"title": ValidationError(_("Missing title."), code="required"),
"pub_date": ValidationError(_("Invalid date."), code="invalid"),
}
)
Then, full_clean()
will check unique constraints on your model.
How to raise field-specific validation errors if those fields don’t appear in a ModelForm
You can’t raise validation errors in Model.clean()
for fields that
don’t appear in a model form (a form may limit its fields using
Meta.fields
or Meta.exclude
). Doing so will raise a ValueError
because the validation error won’t be able to be associated with the
excluded field.
To work around this dilemma, instead override Model.clean_fields()
as it receives the list of fields
that are excluded from validation. For example:
class Article(models.Model):
...
def clean_fields(self, exclude=None):
super().clean_fields(exclude=exclude)
if self.status == "draft" and self.pub_date is not None:
if exclude and "status" in exclude:
raise ValidationError(
_("Draft entries may not have a publication date.")
)
else:
raise ValidationError(
{
"status": _(
"Set status to draft if there is not a publication date."
),
}
)
This method is similar to clean_fields()
, but validates
uniqueness constraints defined via Field.unique
,
Field.unique_for_date
, Field.unique_for_month
,
Field.unique_for_year
, or Meta.unique_together
on your model instead of individual
field values. The optional exclude
argument allows you to provide a set
of field names to exclude from validation. It will raise a
ValidationError
if any fields fail validation.
UniqueConstraint
s defined in the
Meta.constraints
are validated
by Model.validate_constraints()
.
Note that if you provide an exclude
argument to validate_unique()
, any
unique_together
constraint involving one of
the fields you provided will not be checked.
Finally, full_clean()
will check any other constraints on your model.
This method validates all constraints defined in
Meta.constraints
. The
optional exclude
argument allows you to provide a set
of field names to
exclude from validation. It will raise a
ValidationError
if any constraints fail
validation.
To save an object back to the database, call save()
:
Asynchronous version: asave()
For details on using the force_insert
and force_update
arguments, see
Forcing an INSERT or UPDATE. Details about the update_fields
argument
can be found in the Specifying which fields to save section.
If you want customized saving behavior, you can override this save()
method. See Overriding predefined model methods for more details.
The model save process also has some subtleties; see the sections below.
Deprecated since version 5.1: Support for positional arguments is deprecated.
If a model has an AutoField
— an auto-incrementing
primary key — then that auto-incremented value will be calculated and saved as
an attribute on your object the first time you call save()
:
>>> b2 = Blog(name="Cheddar Talk", tagline="Thoughts on cheese.")
>>> b2.id # Returns None, because b2 doesn't have an ID yet.
>>> b2.save()
>>> b2.id # Returns the ID of your new object.
There’s no way to tell what the value of an ID will be before you call
save()
, because that value is calculated by your database, not by Django.
For convenience, each model has an AutoField
named
id
by default unless you explicitly specify primary_key=True
on a field
in your model. See the documentation for AutoField
for more details.
pk
property¶Regardless of whether you define a primary key field yourself, or let Django
supply one for you, each model will have a property called pk
. It behaves
like a normal attribute on the model, but is actually an alias for whichever
attribute is the primary key field for the model. You can read and set this
value, just as you would for any other attribute, and it will update the
correct field in the model.
If a model has an AutoField
but you want to define a
new object’s ID explicitly when saving, define it explicitly before saving,
rather than relying on the auto-assignment of the ID:
>>> b3 = Blog(id=3, name="Cheddar Talk", tagline="Thoughts on cheese.")
>>> b3.id # Returns 3.
>>> b3.save()
>>> b3.id # Returns 3.
If you assign auto-primary-key values manually, make sure not to use an already-existing primary-key value! If you create a new object with an explicit primary-key value that already exists in the database, Django will assume you’re changing the existing record rather than creating a new one.
Given the above 'Cheddar Talk'
blog example, this example would override the
previous record in the database:
b4 = Blog(id=3, name="Not Cheddar", tagline="Anything but cheese.")
b4.save() # Overrides the previous blog with ID=3!
See How Django knows to UPDATE vs. INSERT, below, for the reason this happens.
Explicitly specifying auto-primary-key values is mostly useful for bulk-saving objects, when you’re confident you won’t have primary-key collision.
If you’re using PostgreSQL, the sequence associated with the primary key might need to be updated; see Manually-specifying values of auto-incrementing primary keys.
When you save an object, Django performs the following steps:
Emit a pre-save signal. The pre_save
signal is sent, allowing any functions listening for that signal to do
something.
Preprocess the data. Each field’s
pre_save()
method is called to perform any
automated data modification that’s needed. For example, the date/time fields
override pre_save()
to implement
auto_now_add
and
auto_now
.
Prepare the data for the database. Each field’s
get_db_prep_save()
method is asked to provide
its current value in a data type that can be written to the database.
Most fields don’t require data preparation. Simple data types, such as integers and strings, are ‘ready to write’ as a Python object. However, more complex data types often require some modification.
For example, DateField
fields use a Python
datetime
object to store data. Databases don’t store datetime
objects, so the field value must be converted into an ISO-compliant date
string for insertion into the database.
Insert the data into the database. The preprocessed, prepared data is composed into an SQL statement for insertion into the database.
Emit a post-save signal. The post_save
signal is sent, allowing any functions listening for that signal to do
something.
You may have noticed Django database objects use the same save()
method
for creating and changing objects. Django abstracts the need to use INSERT
or UPDATE
SQL statements. Specifically, when you call save()
and the
object’s primary key attribute does not define a
default
or
db_default
, Django follows this algorithm:
If the object’s primary key attribute is set to a value that evaluates to
True
(i.e., a value other than None
or the empty string), Django
executes an UPDATE
.
If the object’s primary key attribute is not set or if the UPDATE
didn’t update anything (e.g. if primary key is set to a value that doesn’t
exist in the database), Django executes an INSERT
.
If the object’s primary key attribute defines a
default
or
db_default
then Django executes an UPDATE
if it is an existing model instance and primary key is set to a value that
exists in the database. Otherwise, Django executes an INSERT
.
The one gotcha here is that you should be careful not to specify a primary-key value explicitly when saving new objects, if you cannot guarantee the primary-key value is unused. For more on this nuance, see Explicitly specifying auto-primary-key values above and Forcing an INSERT or UPDATE below.
In Django 1.5 and earlier, Django did a SELECT
when the primary key
attribute was set. If the SELECT
found a row, then Django did an UPDATE
,
otherwise it did an INSERT
. The old algorithm results in one more query in
the UPDATE
case. There are some rare cases where the database doesn’t
report that a row was updated even if the database contains a row for the
object’s primary key value. An example is the PostgreSQL ON UPDATE
trigger
which returns NULL
. In such cases it is possible to revert to the old
algorithm by setting the select_on_save
option to True
.
In some rare circumstances, it’s necessary to be able to force the
save()
method to perform an SQL INSERT
and not fall back to
doing an UPDATE
. Or vice-versa: update, if possible, but not insert a new
row. In these cases you can pass the force_insert=True
or
force_update=True
parameters to the save()
method.
Passing both parameters is an error: you cannot both insert and update at the
same time!
When using multi-table inheritance, it’s also
possible to provide a tuple of parent classes to force_insert
in order to
force INSERT
statements for each base. For example:
Restaurant(pk=1, name="Bob's Cafe").save(force_insert=(Place,))
Restaurant(pk=1, name="Bob's Cafe", rating=4).save(force_insert=(Place, Rating))
You can pass force_insert=(models.Model,)
to force an INSERT
statement
for all parents. By default, force_insert=True
only forces the insertion of
a new row for the current model.
It should be very rare that you’ll need to use these parameters. Django will almost always do the right thing and trying to override that will lead to errors that are difficult to track down. This feature is for advanced use only.
Using update_fields
will force an update similarly to force_update
.
Sometimes you’ll need to perform a simple arithmetic task on a field, such as incrementing or decrementing the current value. One way of achieving this is doing the arithmetic in Python like:
>>> product = Product.objects.get(name="Venezuelan Beaver Cheese")
>>> product.number_sold += 1
>>> product.save()
If the old number_sold
value retrieved from the database was 10, then
the value of 11 will be written back to the database.
The process can be made robust, avoiding a race condition, as well as slightly faster by expressing
the update relative to the original field value, rather than as an explicit
assignment of a new value. Django provides F expressions
for performing this kind of relative update. Using
F expressions
, the previous example is expressed
as:
>>> from django.db.models import F
>>> product = Product.objects.get(name="Venezuelan Beaver Cheese")
>>> product.number_sold = F("number_sold") + 1
>>> product.save()
For more details, see the documentation on F expressions
and their use in update queries.
If save()
is passed a list of field names in keyword argument
update_fields
, only the fields named in that list will be updated.
This may be desirable if you want to update just one or a few fields on
an object. There will be a slight performance benefit from preventing
all of the model fields from being updated in the database. For example:
product.name = "Name changed again"
product.save(update_fields=["name"])
The update_fields
argument can be any iterable containing strings. An
empty update_fields
iterable will skip the save. A value of None
will
perform an update on all fields.
Specifying update_fields
will force an update.
When saving a model fetched through deferred model loading
(only()
or
defer()
) only the fields loaded
from the DB will get updated. In effect there is an automatic
update_fields
in this case. If you assign or change any deferred field
value, the field will be added to the updated fields.
Field.pre_save()
and update_fields
If update_fields
is passed in, only the
pre_save()
methods of the update_fields
are called. For example, this means that date/time fields with
auto_now=True
will not be updated unless they are included in the
update_fields
.
Asynchronous version: adelete()
Issues an SQL DELETE
for the object. This only deletes the object in the
database; the Python instance will still exist and will still have data in
its fields, except for the primary key set to None
. This method returns the
number of objects deleted and a dictionary with the number of deletions per
object type.
For more details, including how to delete objects in bulk, see Deleting objects.
If you want customized deletion behavior, you can override the delete()
method. See Overriding predefined model methods for more details.
Sometimes with multi-table inheritance you may
want to delete only a child model’s data. Specifying keep_parents=True
will
keep the parent model’s data.
When you pickle
a model, its current state is pickled. When you unpickle
it, it’ll contain the model instance at the moment it was pickled, rather than
the data that’s currently in the database.
A few object methods have special purposes.
__str__()
¶The __str__()
method is called whenever you call str()
on an object.
Django uses str(obj)
in a number of places. Most notably, to display an
object in the Django admin site and as the value inserted into a template when
it displays an object. Thus, you should always return a nice, human-readable
representation of the model from the __str__()
method.
For example:
from django.db import models
class Person(models.Model):
first_name = models.CharField(max_length=50)
last_name = models.CharField(max_length=50)
def __str__(self):
return f"{self.first_name} {self.last_name}"
__eq__()
¶The equality method is defined such that instances with the same primary
key value and the same concrete class are considered equal, except that
instances with a primary key value of None
aren’t equal to anything except
themselves. For proxy models, concrete class is defined as the model’s first
non-proxy parent; for all other models it’s simply the model’s class.
For example:
from django.db import models
class MyModel(models.Model):
id = models.AutoField(primary_key=True)
class MyProxyModel(MyModel):
class Meta:
proxy = True
class MultitableInherited(MyModel):
pass
# Primary keys compared
MyModel(id=1) == MyModel(id=1)
MyModel(id=1) != MyModel(id=2)
# Primary keys are None
MyModel(id=None) != MyModel(id=None)
# Same instance
instance = MyModel(id=None)
instance == instance
# Proxy model
MyModel(id=1) == MyProxyModel(id=1)
# Multi-table inheritance
MyModel(id=1) != MultitableInherited(id=1)
__hash__()
¶The __hash__()
method is based on the instance’s primary key value. It
is effectively hash(obj.pk)
. If the instance doesn’t have a primary key
value then a TypeError
will be raised (otherwise the __hash__()
method would return different values before and after the instance is
saved, but changing the __hash__()
value of an instance is
forbidden in Python.
get_absolute_url()
¶Define a get_absolute_url()
method to tell Django how to calculate the
canonical URL for an object. To callers, this method should appear to return a
string that can be used to refer to the object over HTTP.
For example:
def get_absolute_url(self):
return "/people/%i/" % self.id
While this code is correct and simple, it may not be the most portable way to
to write this kind of method. The reverse()
function is
usually the best approach.
For example:
def get_absolute_url(self):
from django.urls import reverse
return reverse("people-detail", kwargs={"pk": self.pk})
One place Django uses get_absolute_url()
is in the admin app. If an object
defines this method, the object-editing page will have a “View on site” link
that will jump you directly to the object’s public view, as given by
get_absolute_url()
.
Similarly, a couple of other bits of Django, such as the syndication feed
framework, use get_absolute_url()
when it is
defined. If it makes sense for your model’s instances to each have a unique
URL, you should define get_absolute_url()
.
Warning
You should avoid building the URL from unvalidated user input, in order to reduce possibilities of link or redirect poisoning:
def get_absolute_url(self):
return "/%s/" % self.name
If self.name
is '/example.com'
this returns '//example.com/'
which, in turn, is a valid schema relative URL but not the expected
'/%2Fexample.com/'
.
It’s good practice to use get_absolute_url()
in templates, instead of
hard-coding your objects’ URLs. For example, this template code is bad:
<!-- BAD template code. Avoid! -->
<a href="/people/{{ object.id }}/">{{ object.name }}</a>
This template code is much better:
<a href="{{ object.get_absolute_url }}">{{ object.name }}</a>
The logic here is that if you change the URL structure of your objects, even
for something small like correcting a spelling error, you don’t want to have to
track down every place that the URL might be created. Specify it once, in
get_absolute_url()
and have all your other code call that one place.
Note
The string you return from get_absolute_url()
must contain only
ASCII characters (required by the URI specification, RFC 3986#section-2)
and be URL-encoded, if necessary.
Code and templates calling get_absolute_url()
should be able to use the
result directly without any further processing. You may wish to use the
django.utils.encoding.iri_to_uri()
function to help with this if you
are using strings containing characters outside the ASCII range.
In addition to save()
, delete()
, a model object
might have some of the following methods:
For every field that has choices
set, the
object will have a get_FOO_display()
method, where FOO
is the name of
the field. This method returns the “human-readable” value of the field.
For example:
from django.db import models
class Person(models.Model):
SHIRT_SIZES = {
"S": "Small",
"M": "Medium",
"L": "Large",
}
name = models.CharField(max_length=60)
shirt_size = models.CharField(max_length=2, choices=SHIRT_SIZES)
>>> p = Person(name="Fred Flintstone", shirt_size="L")
>>> p.save()
>>> p.shirt_size
'L'
>>> p.get_shirt_size_display()
'Large'
For every DateField
and
DateTimeField
that does not have null=True
, the object will have get_next_by_FOO()
and
get_previous_by_FOO()
methods, where FOO
is the name of the field. This
returns the next and previous object with respect to the date field, raising
a DoesNotExist
exception when appropriate.
Both of these methods will perform their queries using the default manager for the model. If you need to emulate filtering used by a custom manager, or want to perform one-off custom filtering, both methods also accept optional keyword arguments, which should be in the format described in Field lookups.
Note that in the case of identical date values, these methods will use the primary key as a tie-breaker. This guarantees that no records are skipped or duplicated. That also means you cannot use those methods on unsaved objects.
Overriding extra instance methods
In most cases overriding or inheriting get_FOO_display()
,
get_next_by_FOO()
, and get_previous_by_FOO()
should work as
expected. Since they are added by the metaclass however, it is not
practical to account for all possible inheritance structures. In more
complex cases you should override Field.contribute_to_class()
to set
the methods you need.
_state
¶The _state
attribute refers to a ModelState
object that tracks
the lifecycle of the model instance.
The ModelState
object has two attributes: adding
, a flag which is
True
if the model has not been saved to the database yet, and db
,
a string referring to the database alias the instance was loaded from or
saved to.
Newly instantiated instances have adding=True
and db=None
,
since they are yet to be saved. Instances fetched from a QuerySet
will have adding=False
and db
set to the alias of the associated
database.
_is_pk_set()
¶The _is_pk_set()
method returns whether the model instance’s pk
is set.
It abstracts the model’s primary key definition, ensuring consistent behavior
regardless of the specific pk
configuration.
Nov 27, 2024